What Is a Computer?

1. A Very Brief History of Computers

2. Smith, Adam (1776), passage on the division of labor, from The Wealth of Nations.

3. O'Connor, J.J., & Robertson, E.F. (1997), "Gaspard Clair François Marie Riche de Prony"

4. Charles Babbage websites:
   • Charles Babbage Institute
   • Lee, J.A.N. (1994), "Charles Babbage".
   • O'Connor, J.J., & Robertson, E.F. (1998), "Charles Babbage"

   • ... and many more good sites locatable by doing a Google search on "Charles Babbage" (just click on his name above).

5. Joyce, David E. (1997), "The Mathematical Problems of David Hilbert"

6. Simon, Herbert A., & Newell, Allen (1958), "Heuristic Problem Solving: The Next Advance in Operations Research", Operations Research 6(1) (January-February): 1-10.
   • Includes a brief history of Babbage's work.

7. Davis, Martin (1987), "Mathematical Logic and the Origin of Modern Computers" [PDF], Studies in the History of Mathematics
   Reprinted in:
   Rolf Herken (ed.), Universal Turing Machine: A Half-Century Survey; Second Edition (Vienna: Springer-Verlag, 1995): 135-158.

8. Searle, John R. (1990), "Is the Brain a Digital Computer?", Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association 64: 21-37.
   Some reactions:
   1. Piccinini, Gualtiero (2003), "The Mind as Neural Software: Functionalism, Computationalism, and Computational Functionalism", paper read at the APA Pacific Division (March 2004).

   2. 
      Rapaport, William J. (in press), "Searle on Brains as Computers", American Philosophical Association Newsletter on Computers and Philosophy.

9. Chalmers, David (1993), "A Computational Foundation for the Study of Cognition".
   • See esp. the section "What about computers?"

10. Robinson, J.Alan (1994), "Logic, Computers, Turing, and von Neumann" [PDF], in K. Furukawa; D. Michie; & Muggleton, S. (eds.), Machine Intelligence 13: Machine Intelligence and Inductive Learning (Oxford: Clarendon Press): 1-35.
    • Interesting historical comments by the developer of the resolution method of automated theorem proving on the development of computers and the related history of logic.

11. Hoyle, Michelle A. (1994-2003), "The History of Computing Science"

12. Lee, J.A.N. (1995-2002), "The History of Computing"

13. Hayes, Patrick J. (1997), "What Is a Computer? An Electronic Discussion", Monist 80(3).
    • Original emails

    • 
      print version (may require buffalo.edu connection)

14. Maxfield & Montrose Interactive, Inc. (1997-1998), A History of Computers

15. Floridi, Luciano (1999), Philosophy and Computing: An Introduction (London: Routledge), Ch. 2: "The Digital Workshop".

16. Shagrir, Oron (1999), "What Is Computer Science About?" [PDF], The Monist 82(1): 131-149.

17. Davis, Martin (2000), "Introduction" to The Universal Computer (New York: W.W. Norton).

18. Johnson, Mark (2002), Review of Martin Davis's The Universal Computer: The Road from Leibniz to Turing.

19. Computer History Museum (2003)

20. Copeland, B. Jack (2004), "Computation", in Luciano Floridi (ed.), The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Computing and Information (Malden, MA: Blackwell).
    • Esp. pp. 3-4 on "The Birth of the Modern Computer"
    • See also: Copeland, B. Jack (2000), "A Brief History of Computing".

21. Hitmill.com (2004), History of Computers

22. Ensmenger, Nathan (2004), "Bits of History: Review of A.R. Burks's Who Invented the Computer? The Legal Battle that Changed Computing History", in American Scientist 91 (September-October): 467-468.

23. O'Connor, J.J., & Robertson, E.F. (2004), "The MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive"