How to Study:

Moreover, notes are often incomplete or sketchy; just reading such notes won't help. And a few days or months after you take them, they may very well be illegible or incomprehensible. Finally, if you don't do something active with your notes, you run the risks of having unorganized notes or of misplacing them.

What I suggest is that you study your notes by re-writing them:

• For each class, buy a separate notebook from the one you take your notes in. I recommend a "composition" or spiral notebook, not a looseleaf notebook, for your "permanent" (i.e., re-written) notes.
• Then, as soon as possible after class (preferably that evening or the next), copy your notes into your permanent notebook.

The main idea behind re-writing your "raw" class notes (besides making them more legible and organized) is that the very act of copying them is one of the best ways of studying them! Further study of your class notes can then be done from these "cooked" ones that are neater, more legible, more organized, and more complete. I will suggest ways to do this later.

Use this opportunity to fill in gaps from your memory while they are still fresh in mind. You may find that you have questions, perhaps something you missed or don't understand, or even a "substantive" question. If so, good! Make a note of your question and ask it in class next time!

Use this opportunity to (re-)organize your notes in a more logical or coherent fashion. You could write your permanent notes in an outline form if that seems suitable: You don't have to follow any "official" or formal outlining style (e.g., using the I.A.1.(a)(i) format or the (sometimes silly) rule that there must always be at least two subsections, never just one) — after all, these are your notes. Personally, I like to number main ideas (and separate them with a line), using an "indented bullet" style for details:

1.  Main idea 1
    - detail 1
    - detail 2
      - further detail 2.1
    - detail 3
      - further detail 3.1
      - further detail 3.2

2.  Main idea 2

3.  Main idea 3

Also, typing class notes into a computer file can be inconsistent with my recommendation to re-write your class notes.

Worse, you may be tempted to use the computer that you're ostensibly taking notes on to surf the Internet, look at email, or chat with friends. Don't! (For an interesting debate on this topic, see Adams 2006.)

For that matter, turn off your computer in class. And your iPod. And your cell phone. And your pager. And anything else that might distract you. For reasons why, see:

• Bugeja, Michael J. (2007), "Distractions in the Wireless Classroom", Chronicle of Higher Education (26 January): C1,C4.
• Zhu, Erping; Kaplan, Matthew; Dershimer, R. Charles; & Bergom, Inger (2011), "Use of Laptops in the Classroom: Research and Best Practices", CRLT Occasional Papers No. 30 (University of Michigan Center for Research on Learning and Teaching).
• Mueller, Pam A.; & Oppenheimer, Daniel M. (2014), "The Pen Is Mightier than the Keyboard: Advantages of Longhand over Laptop Note Taking", Psychological Science 25(6): 1159–1168; summarized at Journalist's Resource.
• Klass, Perri (2016), "Why Handwriting Is Still Essential in the Keyboard Age", New York Times (20 June).

3.8. Don't Rely on the Instructor's Lecture Notes

• Pappano, Laura (2008), "Strategy: Notetaking—To Survive the Lecture Course, Take Heed if the Professor Waves His Arms", New York Times Education Life (6 January): 6.
• Hoffmann, Roald; & McGuire, Saundra Y. (2010), "Learning and Teaching Strategies", American Scientist 98(5) (September-October): 378–382.
  • The first of their "Six Learning Strategies" "is to take notes by hand" and "rewrite your notes, by hand".

4. Study Hard Subjects First & Study in a Quiet Place

• Do not listen to music or TV: It is virtually impossible to do two things at once if one of them is studying.
• (For the evidence on why it is difficult—if not impossible—to do two things at once (called "multitasking"), see:
  Willingham, Daniel T. (2010), "Have Technology and Multitasking Rewired How Students Learn?", Ask the Cognitive Scientist, American Educator (Summer): 23–28, 42.

  

• It's tempting to put off your homework to the last minute. There are at least two good reasons to do your homework as soon as possible and not put it off till the evening, when it's not daylight (although you should certainly take a break between the end of the school day and before starting your homework):
  1. It's better to get it done and over with, and to leave yourself enough time to do it all.
     • If you put it off, you may find that you have an assignment or two that are going to take you a lot longer than you thought they would.
     • If you start early and get your work done before you relax, you'll have enough time for even those hard assignments (even if it means not having enough time to Facebook or play videogames or read for fun).
     • The general principle is: Don't eat your dessert first!

  2. You're more awake during the daytime or after relaxing for, say, an hour or so after classes end, than you will be at the end of the day just before going to sleep.

5. Read Actively & Slowly, before & after Class

1. Read actively, not passively
2. Read slowly
3. Highlight the text in the margin
4. Make notes in the margin
5. Keep a notebook
6. Read literature quickly and passively the first time
7. Read before and after class

• With one major exception, you should not read passively.
• That is, don't just read the text straight through without thinking about what you're reading.
  

  If you read without thinking, I guarantee that your mind will eventually wander off, your eyes will eventually glaze over, and you will fall asleep—it's a form of self-hypnosis.

  • So you must read actively.
  • To use computer jargon, you must turn the inert medium of text on paper to an interactive medium, in which you have a "conversation" with the text, as you might if you could be talking to the author.

The first step in reading actively is to read s-l-o-w-l-y. Here is an algorithm (i.e., a procedure) for how to read any text, in any subject, slowly and actively:

WHILE there is a next sentence to read, DO:
  BEGIN { while }
    Read it, SLOWLY;
    IF you do not understand it, THEN
      BEGIN { if }
        re-read the previous material, SLOWLY;
        re-read the incomprehensible sentence, SLOWLY;
        IF you still don't understand it, THEN
           ask a fellow student to explain it;
        IF you still don't understand it, THEN
           ask your Teaching Assistant (TA) to explain it;
        IF you still don't understand it, THEN
           ask me;
        IF you are in an upper-level course & you still don't understand it, THEN
           write a paper about it (!)
      END { if } 
END; { while }

Since there is no next sentence (because the Boolean test in the WHILE is false), you've understood the text!

For those of you who may not be familiar with how to read structured computer programs such as this one, here's how it goes:

• In a "while" statement, if the initial test is false, then the rest of the statement is not executed.
• So, if you are at the beginning or the middle of reading a text, there will be a "next" sentence, so you do execute the rest of the statement, which says to read that next sentence slowly, etc.
• However, if you have finished reading the entire text (and, hopefully, have now understood it), then there is no next sentence, so you are finished!
• (The words in braces, like "{ while }", are just computer-programming notation for a comment that is intended for human readers of a computer program but that is ignored by the computer.)

This algorithm has three major advantages:

1. It forces you to actively think about each sentence you read before you go on to read the next one.

2. It slows you down, so that you don't read past the point at which you don't understand. This is especially important in mathematical and scientific subjects.

3. It can help you get help from your teacher, because you can show your teacher exactly where you got lost.
   • It is always much better to show your teacher exactly what it is that you don't understand than it is to just say that you don't understand the material.

4. Note that it also provides you an opportunity to interact with your instructors and fellow students!

How do you know whether you understand what you've read? Easy: After each sentence, ask yourself "Why?" (Pressley & El-Dinary 1992).

For more information on slow reading, see:

1. Pressley, Michael, & El-Dinary, Pamela Beard (1992), "Memory Strategy Instruction that promotes Good Information Processing", in Douglas J. Herrmann, Herbert Weingartner, Alan Searleman, & Cathy McEvoy (eds.), Memory Improvement: Implications for Memory Theory (New York: Springer-Verlag): 79-100.

2. Hartman, Geoffrey H. (1996), "The Fate of Reading Once More", PMLA (Proceedings of the Modern Language Association) 111(3) (May): 383-389; see especially p. 386.

3. Waters, Lindsay (2007), "Time for Reading", Chronicle of Higher Education 53(23) (9 February): B6-B8.

4. Bauerlein, Mark (2008), "Online Literacy Is a Lesser Kind: Slow Reading Counterbalances Web Skimming", Chronicle of Higher Education 54(31) (19 September): B10-B11.

5. Blessing, Kimberly A. (2013), "I Re-Read, therefore I Understand", Philosophy Now No. 94 (January/February): 17.
   • "René Descartes' advice on reading philosophy"
     1. "Read through the entire work quickly, as you would a novel.…"
     2. "Read through a second time, paying greater attention…"
     3. "Read through a third time, keeping the questions and problems noted in Step 2 in mind.…"
     4. "If some difficulties still remain, re-read those parts a fourth time.…"

6. And for information on why speed reading doesn't work, see:
   • Adams, Cecil (1992), "Does Speed Reading Training Actually Work?", The Straight Dope (14 February).
   • Zacks, Jeffrey M.; & Treiman, Rebecca (2016), "Sorry, You Can't Speed Read", New York Times (17 April): SR9.

• The worst is to use a yellow highlighting marker (or hot pink, or whatever color you like).
  • The main problem with this is that you will tend to find almost every sentence to be important or interesting.
  • As a consequence, every page will become yellow (or hot pink, or whatever).
  • Not only does this defeat the purpose of highlighting — because if everything has been highlighted, then really nothing has been! — but the pages of your text will become damp, curl up, and be generally messy.
  • This technique can have other problems, too:
    

• A slightly less messy, but equally useless, technique is to use a pen or pencil to underline important or interesting passages.
  • I guarantee that you will wind up underlining every sentence on every page, and you will have gained nothing.

• The technique that I suggest is also susceptible to this problem, but has a built-in way to overcome it, so that you can re-read the text, highlighting different passages each time.
  • The trick is to highlight a passage by drawing a vertical line in the margin.
    • I like to use the right margin and to make my line a right square bracket: ]
    • If you want to make it clear [exactly where the highlighted passage begins or ends,] you can use small square brackets in the text, as I did in this sentence, along with the vertical line in the margin.
    • This way, even if you've slipped into the error of highlighting (i.e., vertical-lining) every sentence on every page, at least you haven't ruined the page.
    • Moreover, when you re-read the text  —  note that I said 'when', not 'if' :-)  —  you can then use a different highlighting technique (e.g., underlining) to highlight more important passages.
    • Sometimes, I use double brackets in the margin for this second round of highlighting: ]]
      and underlining for a third round. (If you must, you could use yellow highlighter for a fourth round.)

• The best technique for active reading is to keep a notebook.

• In addition to (or instead of) highlighting a passage, copy it  —  verbatim  —  into your notebook.
• Be sure to begin your notebook with a full citation to the text for use in a bibliography, and be sure to write down the page numbers of each passage that you copy.
• Then, write down  —  at length and in detail  —  your comments on the passage.
• (I sometimes like to use a pen for the text and a pencil for my commentary.)

These notes can then be used later if you write a term paper or research paper that discusses the material in the text.

• For that purpose, it will be useful to number your notes.
• I find the following scheme useful: Number each notebook page with a Roman numeral (I, II, etc.), number each quoted passage (or stand-alone comment) with an Arabic numeral (1, 2, etc.), and letter (a, b, etc.) each comment associated with a quoted passage (or stand-alone comment).
• Then you can refer to each passage with an identifier (like XIV-7-b, i.e., comment b about quotation 7, which comment is located on notebook page XIV) that will enable you to find it later. See below.)

• If the text is a work of literature (a story, novel, play, poem, etc.), then it is often best to read it once all the way through without stopping, just as you would read something for fun, so that you get to know what it's about and can appreciate it as a work of literature.
• (If there's a recording of it, you might find it helpful to listen to the recording while reading the text. I have found this especially useful for Shakespeare.)
• Then you can use the slow and active reading techniques for a second (or third, or fourth, or …) reading when you are studying the text.
• Actually, even for non-fiction, it can be useful to read the text through once, quickly, to get an overview, perhaps making notes if something strikes you, and then doing the slow and active reading techniques when you are studying the text.

What about film or video versions?

• They can be helpful but, in general, of course are no substitute for reading.
• The exception here is for plays, which are intended to be seen, not (just) read.
• If you do decide to watch in addition to read, which should you do first?
  • I prefer watching first, reading afterwards.
  • I have almost always been disappointed by film adaptations of favorite texts (because they don't match the mental images that I construct when I read), but I have almost never been disappointed by a text after watching a film adaptation.
  • Besides, if you watch first and read later, the adaptation can help you visualize what you're reading.

• Read it (perhaps quickly) before the class in which it will be discussed, so that you are familiar with its contents.
• Then (re-)read it after class using the slow and active method.
• If time permits, you can cut corners by only reading it—slowly and actively!—after class.

6. Do Your Homework

It should go without saying that you should do your homework and do it on time.

Science and math courses (and some others, such as foreign-language courses) often require you to do homework exercises or problem sets.

• I strongly recommend that you do not simply do the problems and hand them in.
• Rather, do them on scrap paper, check them over, and then copy them neatly.
• Turn in the neat copy (and, of course, be sure that your name is on it!).
• You may even want to duplicate your work in case the teacher loses it (unlikely) or doesn't give it back in time to use it for studying for an exam (this should only happen in rare circumstances, usually just before an exam (when the teacher has a lot of things to do), but it is not unheard of).

• And don't just write down answers. Write down the problem and the complete solution showing how you arrived at your answer.

7. Study for Exams

©Batom Inc.

Outline:

1. Don't study for exams!
2. Manage your time
3. How not to study
4. Make a study outline
5. Write sample essays & do sample problems
6. Make "flash cards"
7. Stop studying when you feel confident

• David Jaffee, "Stop Telling Students to Study for Exams", Chronicle of Higher Education (27 April 2012): A35.
• Henry L. Roediger III, "How Tests Make Us Smarter", New York Times (20 July 2014): SR12.

But in case you do want to study for that exam, here are some suggestions:

7.2. Manage Your Time

Earlier, I discussed managing your time. When you have exams, time management becomes even more crucial.

Begin studying about 1 week before the exam.

• Spend at least an hour each night (or day) studying for the exam in the manner described below.
• Try to spend the entire night (and/or day) before the exam studying for it.
• Of course, if you have two exams on the same day, you'll have to split the time in half.

For final exams, try to spend as much time as possible studying.

• Do not be tempted, by any free time that you have during exam week, to do anything other than studying.
  • (If you must take some time to relax, do it after you've done all your studying for the day.)

• If you have E exams and D days to study for them, spend roughly D/E days studying for each exam.
  • (E.g., if you have 4 exams and 5 days to study for them, spend a little more than 1 day (1.25 days to be exact) studying for each exam.)

• If you have some free days, then some exams, then some more free days, then some more exams, etc., plan your studying so that you'll spend approximately the same amount of time studying for each exam, making sure that the night (or day) just before an exam is spent studying for it.
  • E.g., suppose you have 2 free days to study before exam #1, then one more free day before exams #2 and #3.
  • Think of each day as having 3 parts: morning, afternoon, and evening.
  • Let's assume that each exam is in only one of these parts (i.e., it's not so long that it extends through 2 of them).
  • Then you might divide your studying time as shown in the chart below.
  • Note that you should not delay studying for exam #3 until after exam #2! Start studying for all exams right away.

    DAY	PART OF DAY	WHAT TO DO
    Day 1	morning	study for exam #1
    	afternoon	study for exam #2
    	evening	study for exam #3
    Day 2	morning	study for exam #1
    	afternoon	study for exam #2 or #3 (or both)
    	evening	study for exam #1
    Day 3	morning	study for exam #1
    	afternoon	take exam #1
    	evening	study for exam #2
    Day 4	morning	study for exam #3
    	afternoon	study for exam #2
    	evening	study for exam #3
    Day 5	morning	study for exam #2
    	afternoon	take exam #2
    	evening	study for exam #3
    Day 6		take exam #3

• Moreover, you should distribute your studying, not "mass" it all together:
  • "set aside blocks of time throughout each week to study the content for each class"; "massed practice leads to quick learning and quick forgetting, whereas interleaved practice slows learning but leads to much greater retention" (Dunlosky, John (2013), "Strengthening the Student Toolbox: Study Strategies to Boost Learning", American Educator 37(3) (Fall): 12–21).

Most students don't realize this, because they have an "illusion of competence" (that is, you think you know the material better than you really do) when they re-read notes and textbooks (Karpicke et al. 2009; Belluck 2011), especially when re-reading passively instead of actively.

One method of studying that is better than passive re-reading is the "read-recite-review" ("3R") method: "Read the text, set the text aside and recite out loud all that [you can] remember, and then read the text a second time" (McDaniel et al. 2009).

More importantly, you learn better and remember more from repeated testing (from both in-class quizzes and from self-testing at home) than from repeated reading (Karpicke et al. 2009). (So when your instructor gives you lots of quizzes or tells you to memorize basic facts, don't complain! That's the best way to learn and to remember what you learn.)

The next few sections give you some suggestions on how to do this.

7.4. Make a Study Outline

• Try to put as much as possible onto the front sides of only 1 or 2 sheets of paper (like those plasticized crib sheets that are often sold in college bookstores).
• Then do all your studying from these.
• (You could even combine this outline with "flash cards".)

  

7.5. Write Sample Essays & Do Sample Problems

• Then write sample essays.
  • Although the essay questions that you find or make up may not be the actual ones on your exam, you will probably find that much of what you wrote in your sample essays by way of preparation for the exam can be recycled for the actual exam.
  • You will then be in the advantageous position during the exam of not having to create an essay answer from scratch but being able to merely recall the main ideas from a sample that you have already written as part of your studying.

For subjects in which you will have to solve problems or write proofs, solve lots of sample problems from your text or from other texts.

• ( Schaum's Outline Series (McGraw-Hill) books are usually quite good in this regard).

• How will you know if your answers are correct?
  • The best way is to form a study group of 2 or more fellow students:
    • Solve the same problems and compare answers.
    • If your answers agree, they're probably correct; if not, go to your Teaching Assistant (TA) or teacher.
    • As with slow reading, it's always better when asking for help from a teacher to have a specific problem or question to ask.

• But I suggest using regular 8 1/2" x 11" paper, not index cards.
• Divide each page in half, vertically.
• On the left, write a "question" that requires an "answer", e.g., the name of a theorem, a term to be defined, the statement of a theorem, etc.
• On the right, write the answer, e.g., the statement of the theorem named on the left, the definition of the term on the left, the proof of the theorem stated on the left, etc.
  • (This could even be your study outline.)

Then memorize the questions and answers—but do not simply recite them by heart.

• Instead, write down the answers:
  • Cover the right-hand side (the answers) with a blank sheet of paper, and write down the answers.
  • When you finish a page, check your work and repeat writing the answers to the questions you missed until you get them all correct.

Recent psychological evidence suggests that people learn better by making mistakes than by getting everything correct. So don't worry about getting some answers wrong! (See Roediger III, Henry L.; & Finn, Bridgid (2010), "The Pluses of Getting It Wrong", Scientific American Mind 21(1) (March/April): 39–41.

Why write, and not merely recite?

• Because you will have to write the answers on the actual test, so get used to writing them now.
• (Of course, if it's going to be an oral exam, reciting may be better than writing.
• Still, one tends to skip details when reciting, especially if you recite silently to yourself, but if you write the answers and have a good memory, then, during an oral exam, you can "read" the answers with your mind's eye.)

Moreover, there is evidence that the kind of "self-testing" that you can do with this technique is one of the best ways to study: "taking practice tests (versus merely rereading the material to be learned) can substantially boost student learning", according to John Dunlosky, "Strengthening the Student Toolbox: Study Strategies to Boost Learning", American Educator 37(3) (Fall 2013): 12–21.

7.7. Stop Studying When You Feel Confident

8. Take Exams

• Write down, on scrap paper, brief reminders (keywords) of everything that you remember about the topic of the question.
• Then develop an outline of your answer.
• Then write the essay. (With luck, much of the essay can be "copied from memory" from the sample essays you wrote when studying.)

For an exam with problems to solve or proofs to write, do the easy ones first.

When you are all done, review your answers carefully.

And, when all of your exams are over, take heed… :-)

©KingFeaturesSyndicateInc.

9. Do Research & Write Essays.

1. Choose topic carefully
2. Do research
3. Make an outline
4. Write, using your outline
5. Edit
6. Manage your time
7. Some Interesting Online Articles on Writing

From For Better or For Worse:

• These will be your subsections.
• Under each of these, put the identifying numbers of the items in your notes that you want to include in each subsection.
  • (You may find that you will need to repeat this process recursively for subsubsections, etc.
  • If so, do this when you're ready to write that subsection, not at the beginning.
  • This kind of process is called "top-down design and stepwise refinement".)

"How can I tell what I think until I see what I say?"

Once you've got your outline, start writing, using your outline and notes as a guide.

By the way, it's always helpful for keeping track of where you are in your outline, both to you as writer and to your reader, to give each section and subsection a name, as I have done in this document.

9.5. Edit

©KingFeaturesSyndicateInc.

And don't procrastinate!

©Jorge Cham

For some tips on how to procrastinate about procrastinating, see:

Slatalla, Michelle (2007), "The Big Dilly-Dally", New York Times Education Life (7 January): 14–15.

On the other hand, for an argument in favor of procrastinationg, see:

• Pannapacker, W.A. (2009), "How to Procrastinate Like Leonardo da Vinci", Chronicle of Higher Education: The Chronicle Review 55(24) (February 20): B4-B5.

1. Vonnegut, Kurt (1982), "How to Write with Style"

   Abstract:

   • Find a subject you care about.
   • Do not ramble.
   • Keep it simple.
   • Have the guts to cut.
   • Sound like yourself.
   • Say what you mean to say.
   • Pity the readers.

2. Gray, Tara (2005), "Publish and Flourish: Become a Prolific Scholar", Tomorrow's Professor Mailing List #661

3. Andrews, Mark, "Some Elements of an Essay"

10. Do I Really Have to Do All This?

Right about now, you're probably asking yourself whether you really have to do all of this. It seems like an awful lot of work.

Well, of course, you don't have to do all of it at once. Try various of these suggestions to see what works for you. Try some variations that may better fit your learning style or personal circumstances. But, in the long run, there's no quick and easy road to studying. It is hard work and should take a lot of time.

So, do you really have to do all of this? Yes (or things very much like them)—if you want to really learn the material (and get good grades).

Finally, for what it's worth, here are some comments from students and others who have tried some of these methods:

• "... this is the way you taught me to study years ago and it finally paid off last year!" (a college sophomore who went from high-school grades in the 70s to a 3.00 average in college)

• "Thank you for the guide. It has some great tips! I'm surprised that I use some of the techniques myself. (E.g., I abbrev. and cndnse my notes.) I have one suggestion, though: when reviewing for a test/exam, only study what you aren't familiar with. It reduces studying time and is helpful if you're a last minute person like me. :) Well, that may not work for you, but who knows?"

• "... encourage some study groups! Not 5 in a group, 'cause that will be a crowd, but study environment is as important as studying itself; change of environments is sometimes good to make you study better. Thank you for your helpful hints, and it does help me to notice some of my weaknesses in studying."

• "I'd like to pass along a bit of technique that worked well for me in just about all my courses. Thinking about the subject matter—often catalyzed by discussion with others—before delving into it was my key to success. After giving it some thought, I wrote out a series of logical, fundamental questions which I sought to answer that would clarify the subject matter. You know, make it perspicuous. I read/listened/watched with those questions in mind, noting as well other points an author/instructor was attempting to make. If my questions (which were fundamental to a clear understanding) went unanswered, I would seek the answers through other written, visual, or aural materials. Visiting an instructor during office hours or asking the question in class was often most helpful. Once I had the basics well in mind, building on them was easy and fun. Studying and learning in this way also helped me to prepare for exams. Clearly, if I could think of a question, there was a good chance one writing an exam might think of it too. The technique is not a panacea for all study-related problems; however, it does set forth a system to build upon in an individualized way. I also suggest a visit to the children's section of the library when revisiting or attempting to master the basics of certain things. Books written at that level, though often oversimplified, present ideas and concepts in a clear and easily understandable form usually lacking in primers written for adults. There's no substitute for laying a good foundation on which to build additional knowledge." — Marc L. Ames

• "I would like to thank you for the effort made doing this guide.... But there is one thing I would like to suggest for ... future "upgrades" of this text: I think you have to mention that it is important to be in good physical condition as well, I mean: sleep 8 hours a day, eat well, .... What I would like to point is that, in my opinion, it would be good to tell students that they have to be in their best condition to study/take an exam/work." —Diego Fernández Fernández, E.U.I.T.I.O student (Computer Engineering), Oviedo (SPAIN).

• "I would like to thank you very much for the "How to Study" document I discovered on the net. It is very informative, and it will help me with my day to day activities. I only wish I had it while I was in high school!" —Joseph Di Lillo, Team Lead—SAP Service Desk.

• "Thanks so much for the great study guide. I am a high school counselor, and we have been teaching a freshmen study skills class for two years.... Your ideas have really inspired me, and there are many of the same theories that we have been presenting, but in a new way! Thanks for the great tips!" —Trinity Walsh, Guidance Counselor, Elder High School, Cincinnati, OH.

Goldbaum, Ellen (2009, December 17), "UB Professor's Online Study Guide Makes a Great Gift That Keeps On Giving", University at Buffalo NewsCenter.

11. Are There Other Websites that Give Study Hints?

• The Harvard Guide to Happiness (reprinted from The New York Times (18 April 2001).
• Keys to College Success
• Graduate Study in the Computer and Mathematical Sciences: A Survival Manual (by Dianne Prost O'Leary)
• Hayes-Bohanan, James (2002), "The Not-the-13th-Grade Page: A FREE Online Guide to College Success"
• Masino, Dennis; & Giuliano, Jackie (2014), "How to Study and Learn Effectively—Techniques & Methods

References

Adams, Dennis (2006), "Wireless Laptops in the Classroom (and the Sesame Street Syndrome)", Communications of the ACM 49(9; September): 25-27.

Belluck, Pam (2011), "Take a Test to Really Learn, Research Suggests", New York Times (21 January): A14.

Callender, Aimee A.; & McDaniel, Mark A. (2009), "The Limited Benefits of Rereading Educational Texts", Contemporary Educational Psychology 34: 30–41.

Claxton, Charles S., & Murrell, Patricia H. (1987), Implications for Improving Educational Practices, ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 4 (Washington, DC: Association for the Study of Higher Education).

Glenn, David (2010, January 8), "Customized Teaching Fails a Test", Chronicle of Higher Education: A1, A7–A8.

• Published online as "Matching Teaching Style to Learning Style May Not Help Students" (15 December 2009).
• Also see:
  "An Assortment of Learning Styles", Chronicle of Higher Education (8 January 2010): A8; published online 15 December 2009.

Holland, John L. (1966), The Psychology of Vocational Choice (Waltham, MA: Ginn & Co.)

Karpicke, Jeffrey D.; Butler, Andrew C.; & Roediger III, Henry L. (2009), "Metacognitive Strategie in Student learning: Do Students practise Retrieval When They Study on Their Own?", Memory 17(4): 471–479.

Kolb, David A. (1984), Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall).

McDaniel, Mark A.; Howard, Daniel C.; & Einstein, Gilles O. (2009), "The Read-Recite-Review Study Strategy: Effective and Portable", Psychological Science 20(4): 516–522.

Pashler, Harold; McDaniel, Mark; Rohrer, Doug; & Bjork, Robert (2009), "Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence", Psychological Science in the Public Interest 9(3): 105–119.

• Also see:
  Mayer, Richard E. (2009), "Editorial: Advances in Applying the Science of Learning and Instruction to Education", Psychological Science in the Public Interest 9(3): i–ii.

Sternberg, Robert J. (1999), Thinking Styles (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press)

• Summary at "Theory of Mental Self-Government: Thinking Styles"

Swerdlow, Joel L. (1999, August), "The Power of Writing", National Geographic 196(2): 110-133, 136.

Willingham, Daniel T. (2018), "Does Tailoring Instruction to 'Learning Styles' Help Students Learn?", American Educator 42(2) (Summer): 28–32, 43.